Active and passive voice: rules for every tense
How the verb changes in each tense, pronoun changes, modals and imperative sentences, with SSC examples.
Study notes
Geography: rivers, passes, soils, parks and earth facts
Origins of Indian rivers, Himalayan passes, soil types, famous national parks, world records and the layers of earth and atmosphere.
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Indian rivers and their origins
| River | Origin | Key fact |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga | Bhagirathi from Gangotri glacier (Gaumukh) | Called Ganga after Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda at Devprayag |
| Yamuna | Yamunotri glacier | Joins the Ganga at Prayagraj |
| Brahmaputra | Near Mansarovar, Tibet | Called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, Siang/Dihang in Arunachal |
| Indus | Near Mansarovar, Tibet | Flows through Ladakh into Pakistan |
| Sutlej | Rakas Tal, Tibet | Enters India through Shipki La |
| Narmada | Amarkantak (MP) | Flows west through a rift valley into the Gulf of Khambhat |
| Tapi | Multai (MP) | West-flowing |
| Godavari | Trimbakeshwar, near Nashik | Longest peninsular river, “Dakshin Ganga” |
| Krishna | Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra) | East-flowing into the Bay of Bengal |
| Kaveri | Talakaveri, Brahmagiri hills (Karnataka) | East-flowing |
| Mahanadi | Sihawa (Chhattisgarh) | Hirakud dam is on it |
Remember: Narmada and Tapi are the main west-flowing peninsular rivers; they form estuaries, not deltas.
Mountain passes
- Zoji La – Srinagar to Kargil/Leh.
- Banihal – Jammu to Srinagar (Pir Panjal range).
- Khardung La and Karakoram Pass – Ladakh.
- Rohtang and Bara-lacha La – Himachal Pradesh.
- Shipki La – Himachal Pradesh to Tibet.
- Lipulekh – Uttarakhand; route to Kailash Mansarovar.
- Nathu La – Sikkim to Tibet.
- Bomdi La – Arunachal Pradesh.
- Palakkad (Palghat) gap – Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
- Thal ghat and Bhor ghat – Western Ghats, Maharashtra.
- Khyber and Bolan – in Pakistan; historic routes from Afghanistan.
Soils of India
| Soil | Where / features |
|---|---|
| Alluvial | Most widespread; northern plains. Khadar = new, Bhangar = old |
| Black (regur) | Deccan lava plateau; holds moisture; best for cotton |
| Red | Red from iron oxide; Tamil Nadu, Odisha, eastern plateau |
| Laterite | Formed by leaching in heavy rain; Kerala, Karnataka; suits cashew, tea |
| Arid (desert) | Rajasthan; sandy, low humus |
| Saline / alkaline | Also called reh, kallar, usar |
| Peaty / marshy | High organic matter; Kerala backwaters, Sundarbans |
Famous national parks
| Park | State / UT | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Jim Corbett | Uttarakhand | First national park (1936, as Hailey NP); tigers |
| Kaziranga | Assam | One-horned rhinoceros |
| Manas | Assam | Tigers, wild buffalo |
| Gir | Gujarat | Asiatic lion |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | Mangroves, Royal Bengal tiger |
| Ranthambore | Rajasthan | Tigers |
| Keoladeo (Bharatpur) | Rajasthan | Birds |
| Kanha, Bandhavgarh | Madhya Pradesh | Tigers; Kanha for barasingha |
| Periyar | Kerala | Elephants, tigers |
| Silent Valley | Kerala | Tropical evergreen forest |
| Bandipur | Karnataka | Tigers, elephants |
| Dachigam | Jammu and Kashmir | Hangul (Kashmir stag) |
| Hemis | Ladakh | Snow leopard |
| Keibul Lamjao | Manipur | Floating park on Loktak lake; sangai deer |
| Valley of Flowers | Uttarakhand | Alpine flowers |
World: largest, longest, deepest
- Largest ocean: Pacific. Deepest point: Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench.
- Highest peak: Mount Everest (about 8,849 m).
- Longest river: Nile (the Amazon carries the most water).
- Largest continent: Asia; smallest: Australia.
- Largest country by area: Russia; smallest: Vatican City.
- Largest island: Greenland. Largest hot desert: Sahara. Driest desert: Atacama.
- Largest lake: Caspian Sea; deepest lake: Baikal; largest freshwater lake by area: Superior.
- Highest waterfall: Angel Falls (Venezuela). Longest mountain range: Andes.
Layers of the earth
- Crust – thin outer layer; continental crust is SIAL (silica + aluminium), oceanic crust is SIMA (silica + magnesium).
- Mantle – separated from the crust by the Mohorovičić (Moho) discontinuity.
- Core – mainly nickel and iron (NIFE); the outer core is liquid, the inner core solid. The Gutenberg discontinuity separates mantle and core.
Layers of the atmosphere (upwards)
- Troposphere – all weather; temperature falls with height; thickest at the equator.
- Stratosphere – contains the ozone layer.
- Mesosphere – coldest layer; meteors burn up here.
- Thermosphere – includes the ionosphere, which reflects radio waves; auroras.
- Exosphere – outermost, merges with space.
Air is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and nearly 1% argon, with a small fraction of carbon dioxide.
Quick check
- Where does the river Narmada originate?
Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. - Which soil is best suited to cotton?
Black (regur) soil. - In which layer of the atmosphere is the ozone layer found?
Stratosphere.
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